Educational psychology Essay

From 1834, the family of emancipation of slaves in Dominica and the some other British west Indian colonies to 1845, the popular reproduction that was serveual was re all(prenominal)y religious t from each oneing. The concept of a take system of pedagogy in the West Indies emerged in Britain in 1833 as part of the act to emancipate slaves in British custody. Prior to that, the canaille of the people had very(prenominal) much no formal fostering. In Dominica, from 1834 onwards, the British subsidized patriarchal gentility through leaves however basically, teaching method was imported and promoted chief(prenominal)ly by missionaries.The topic of education was divorced from the interests and needs of the masses and the community. Emphasis was on the classics and the arts. on that point is inadequate doubt that the performes original interest in education was the initiation of influential educated elite. In practice, their interests were denomi depicted object, peculiarly seen in the establishment of subsidiary give instruction stick outs. Proposed educational policies depended greatly on the availability of silver, which were always poor. Therefore, changes and reforms were minimal. The nakedly select legislative councils and their leaders gave little support.In reality, education, in practice was for a privileged minority. The populace remained virtually ignorant and nescient. The pre-emancipation society was on that pointfore non in any sense an educated one. Where slaves received any bidding at all it was of a religious nature issued by the church at long intervals. The authorities had no aims or standards hence at that place was no system of formal education. It was against this background that the British imperial brass incorporated an education give in in the 1833 Act of Emancipation to encourage in the educational suppuration of the Negroes.Establishing shoals for the masses was provided for by the Act, which i ncluded grant money from the proud g overnment to provide education in the ex-slave colonies. This grant money is kn aver as the Negro Education Grant. It was regarded as an imperative matter. The total grant amounted to a mere ? 30,000 per annum for quintette grades for all the BWI of almost one million people. The decision to allocate the grant was penalize through the local legislatures and the religious bodies. The grant was decreased each grade and ended in 1845.The denominations were offered financial help to build indoctrinates, and later to helper in the remuneration of teachers salaries as the best means of developing a system of education. Dominicas shargon of the Grant amounted only to ? 600 to be spend on 14,000 ex-slaves. This amount was very insignificant and was spent mainly by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPCK). After both years it became unvarnished that the desired and intended results were non forthcoming because of the many difficul ties faced. Some churches were futile to accept more grants because they could not bear the recurrent expenditure on their schools.In August 1837, the grant was switched to pay one-third of teachers salaries instead. This was insufficient, and the societies did not project kittens their ope confines further. As the expected expansion did not materialise the olympian government was disappointed. Hence, the union of the imperial government, local legislatures and the churches could not fulfil the earlyish ambition to create a viable education system. Thus, in 1841, the imperial government started to withdraw the fund. The Mico trustees who had done the most protested, except to no avail.In 1845 it came to an end, and so the warhead fell on the West Indian legislatures and workers to progressively support the education of their own children. In Dominica, the drive towards education for the masses was assisted by the local legislature, thus complimenting the work done by chariti es and the churches so that by July 1840, Dominica had 20 schools, 10 teachers, 1,086 pupils and total average attending was 750. The British Imperial Government gave devil main reasons for ending the NEG 1. slope workers were s precaution to be worse-off than West-Indian workers 2.The Baptists were said to be prospering although they had refused all aid Both claims were false. The churches lacked both money and resources. The British felt in the flake of Dominica that the Catholic Church could not and would not provide appropriate education. They so supported alternatives to church schools. They decided to provide secular schools and to withdraw grants to the church schools. This was strongly opposed until a via media was reached. The main success of the stay of the NEG was the idea of popular education.The Provision of supplemental Education in Dominica Providers and sexual urge Issues From the foregoing, one can appreciate the fact that the provision of education was a task that involved the participation of several providers or stakeholders The British Imperial Authority, the Local Legislature or Assembly, the Church (especially the Catholics) and the Charities (especially the Mico Trust). Prior to emancipation, the provision of education was the responsibility of the churches and the charities. Education was very limited and very few benefited. In reality, what ever was taught was basically religious education.With the passage of the Act of Emancipation, an attempt was make to establish popular education. The NEG thus provided the needed funds for this purpose besides eventually ended in ill. These funds were channelled through the bodies mentioned above, especially through the charities and the churches. By 1868 the main providers were mainly the state (the Local Legislature) and the church. It must not be forgotten that the vast majority of the population were Catholics and therefore co-operation and compromise between the two bodies were of paramount importance.By that date, the majority of primary schools belonged to the state i. e. 18 aside of 33 (54%). This was funny, for no other West Indian society had such participation by the state in educational provision. In the case of alternate education, the provision was by the Church (Catholic). The get-go establishment for the provision of lower-ranking education was the Convent racy domesticate (CHS) in 1858. This was exclusively for the children of the local elite. The children of the rural peasantry and the running(a) classes were excluded. The state provided some funds for the school. still there were no supportary education provided for the masses. It is again unique to Dominica in that early compass point that post-primary education was being provided only to girls when this grammatical gender was marginalized in the rest of the W. I and in Britain itself. Even today, in 2000, over 65% of lowly school students are girls. The figures for the Clifton Dupi gny Community College, University of Technology (Jamaica) and University of the West Indies are roughly the same. In the case of Dominica, male marginalisation has had a long account statement, contrary to popular opinion.Due to mounting pressure and utter for standby education for boys and the children of the masses, the state realized the Dominica Grammar drill (DGS) on the sixteenth of January 1893, with a registration list of 25 boys under the headmastership of one tutor, Mr. W. mule driver (M. A a graduate from Catherines College, Cambridge, England). It was to be run as a government school, with the aim to provide higher education for boys. The create being used was a personal gift from Mr. Dawbiney, a goodish Jamaican who had settled in the island.The DGS remained a boys school until 1972. This occurred at a time when the number of girls selected by the normal catch Examinations furthest surpassed that of boys. The first DGS girls came from the CHS and the WHS. Th e total number of girls on the roll for that year totalled 34 out of a total of 560 students. Thus a opposed but necessary era commenced in that year the DGS becoming a co-educational institution under the headship of Mr. J. K. Gough (B. Sc Dip. Ed. from Scotland). In that same year there were 14 Dominican staff members who were university graduates.Not to be outdone by the Catholics, the Methodist Society (Methodists) deliver the goodsing the tradition of their rivals, opened the second high school for girls in the island, the Wesley mellow domesticate (WHS) in October 1927. By that year, 80% of the students approach shoting thirdhand education were girls. This again was a unique situation second to no(prenominal) in the W. I. This further marginalized the boys given the restrictive and limited nature of access at the time. At this juncture, it is necessary to appreciate the great effort expended by the churches in the provision of tributary education in the island of Domi nica, albeit for denominational reasons.In 1932, the Christian Brothers (Catholics) opened the second educational establishment providing secondary education for boys, the Saint Marys honorary society (SMA). By that year educational provision was roughly equal for both genders with boys now having the slight edge, unless the fact that the girls were doing better in entrance and scholarship exams. There were insufficient spaces available. An entrance examination would soon be rigorously applied to ration out, select and match the number of students to the available supply of places.This state of inequitable affairs became unbearable as the girls were now being marginalized in favour of boys who were securing less passes than girls in the exams. In other words, the selection was a contribution of available places. The two boys schools had more places than the two girls schools. Therefore, fewer girls were selected although their average win were higher than that of boys who secure d places. In the1972/1973 school year, the Labour government of Mr. Edward Oliver Leblanc took the bold tint to make the DGS co-educational.This occurred at a time when the number of girls who had succeeded at the Common see Examinations far surpassed that of boys. Since then, girls present kept on increasing the education gap or divide to the extent that in Dominica and the West Indies this business of male marginalisation and male underachievement and the like, confine now become so serious that it threatens the whole concept of male patriarchy. The year 1972 has been regarded as a milestone in Dominicas educational history as far as secondary education is concerned.From that year all new secondary schools have opted to become co-educational with the exception of the Saint Martins auxiliary indoctrinate in 1988. Another important milestone in our educational history is the year 1971. For the first time, secondary educational provision moved out of Roseau with the establishm ent of the co-educational Portsmouth substitute tutor (PSS). This greatly reduced the cost burden to parents in the northwest, north and northeast of the island, who, hitherto had to make tremendous sacrifices to provide education for their children in the capital, Roseau.By 1974, the Common Entrance Examinations as a selector of educational life chances was psychologically so devastating to pupils that those who were not selected felt that they were rejects and failures with no hope or future. It was against this backdrop that a multitude of concerned persons headed by Ms. Jean Finucane-James decided to provide a second chance to those pupils that was not based on a selective exam. This co-educational school was named the Dominica Community in high spirits School (DCHS). Apart from the PSS, the early 1970s were characterised for having secondary education concentrated in the capital city of Roseau.The 70s was a power point of political upheaval. In August 1979, Hurricane David struck and the island was devastated 43 deaths, massive final stage of crops and the forest, wildlife was decimated, schools and the social and economic infrastructure was destroyed. The economy came to a standstill. Educationally, the students suffered greatly. A pear-shaped number of students from the northeast could not attend the Roseau schools. In the aftermath of the hurricane, two schools were opened in the northeast St.Andrews High School (SAHS) in 1979, located in capital of the United Kingdomderry which is run and operated by the Methodists and in 1980, the Marigot Foundation High School (MFHS) headed by Mr. Martin Roberts, a former Methodist minister. The last named school was eventually renamed the Marigot Secondary School (MSS) when in 1999 it passed over to the state. These two schools are co-educational institutions. In this catchment area the Common Entrance Exams consistently selects more girls than boys. In the 1980s four schools were established. In 1981, the S eventh-Day Adventists began to provide secondary education.The Seventh-day Adventist Secondary School (SASS) is located in the Portsmouth suburb of Granvillia. It is a co-ed school. In that very same year the co-ed St. Joseph Campus of the DGS was opened which later became a fall in entity as the St. Joseph Secondary School. In 1996 it was renamed the Isaiah Thomas Secondary School. In 1988, two government co-ed secondary schools were established from what were formerly Junior Secondary Programmes the Good leave behind Secondary School (GSS) and the Grand Bay Secondary School (GBSS). In that same year, the Catholicrun St.Martins School for girls upgraded its adept/vocational wing into a fully-fledged secondary school called the St. Martins Secondary School (SMSS). With the opening of these new schools and the awaitd use of the Common Entrance Exams the gender balance continue to be in favour of girls to the distress of boys. In October 1994 the Nehemiah Christian Foundation hea ded by Mrs. Rhoda George opened the Nehemiah Comprehensive School with 60 boys and girls.The school is located in Jimmit, Mahaut. In the financial year 1995/96 the government entered into a loan agreementwith the World affirm to fund the Basic Education Reform realize (BERP). One of the tether main non openedives of the project was to expand access to secondary education. Under the project, this objective was fulfilled in the co-ed Castle Bruce Secondary School (CBSS) in 1998.TABLE I DOMINICA Academic Secondary Schools, 2002/03 School Year Founded Boys Girls contribute Status Convent High School 1858 0 493 493 support Dominica Grammar School 1893 518 281 799 subject Wesley High School 1927 0 287 287 assisted St.Marys Academy 1932 420 0 420 Assisted Portsmouth Secondary School 1971 402 435 837 State Dominica Community High School 1975 79 46 125 Assisted St. Andrews High School 1979 233 292 525 Assisted Marigot Secondary School 1980 86 59 cxlv Assisted Isaiah T homas Secondary School 1981 312 393 705 State SDA Secondary School 1981 108 87 195 close St. Martins Secondary School 1988 0 306 306 Assisted Goodwill Secondary School 1988 380 262 642.State Grand Bay Secondary School 1988 334 343 677 State Nehemiah Comprehensive School 1994 64 73 137 Assisted Castle Bruce Secondary School 1998 266 291 557 State Orion Academy 2003 Private Total 3 202 3 648 6 850 Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth Affairs, 2002/03 The School program Several factors impinge on the development of the plan in Dominica slavery, colonialism, politics, economics, religion, socio- heathen biases, parents, teachers and the learners themselves.In the pre-emancipation era the curriculum that existed was of a religious nature. The society was largely illiterate and ignorant. There existed no notion or idea of popular or mass education. With emancipation in 1834, the rudiments of a system of education began to take shape. The limited curriculum was non-scie ntific and bookishly academic based on rote and memory teaching and learning. By 1868, as the primary system took reservoir the three rs were taught namely reading, writing and arithmetic. The system that was winning shape was one that would provide labourers and servants and no more.At the secondary level, the curriculum catered for the children of the elite Maths, Science, Geography, English, Greek, and Latin. The colonial powers and the local legislatures controlled the educational system. In other words, the govern elites/classes decided who should be taught, what should be taught, when, how and where. The accurate process from start to fill out was decided for the learner. In 1899, Agriculture was being promoted as a subject to be taught so that the learner would become an untaught labourer or worker on an estate or join the ranks of the impoverished peasantry.So agricultural schools were encouraged. In this way the islands would remain as sources of primary agricultural produce. When the British abolished the local legislatures and imposed direct crown colony ruler the curriculum again was being used as a whoreson to keep the masses in their place. It limited them to learn the basics and agriculture. Attempts were make to improve education at the end of the First World war (1914-1918) salaries to teachers, payments by results and attempts at compulsory education. The West Indian Conference in Dominica in 1932 urged the region to struggle for compulsory education among other things.This failed. In 1957, the ministerial system was brought to Dominica with some exercise of authority by the house of assembly. But power still lied with the British parliament. Budgets could be passed, but had to be approved by Britain. In 1967, Dominica became an associate state with Gt. Britain. altogether internal matters were under local jurisdiction, but foreign affairs, trade and defense team resided with Gt. Britain. Dominica could now influence and shape educ ational progress, but very little happened. The primary system continued to develop. The high schools became stagnant.The last one to be established was in 1936 (SMA). Thirty-seven years passed before the next one, the PSS was established. By 1978, the curriculum at the primary was now being driven by the Common Entrance Examinations to the detriment of all else. The same thing could be found at the secondary schools. The entire curriculum was driven by foreign external examinations. The foreign part was removed in 1985 when we switched from the Cambridge and London GCE O directs to the regionally based CXC examinations. But the GCE A Levels still continue to dictate the curriculum at the post-secondary level.In 1998, CXC began to test pilot its own A Levels known as CAPE, which will soon alternate the English-based GCE A Levels. The School syllabus and Examinations The CXC and the GCE curriculum dictate the locus and focus of secondary education in Dominica. These exams cater f or the 30-40% of the ability range of secondary students. The entire curriculum was driven by foreign external examinations. The foreign element was removed in 1985 when we switched from the Cambridge and London GCE O Levels to the regionally based CXC examinations. But the GCE A Levels still continue to dictate the curriculum at the post-secondary level.In 1998, CXC began to test pilot its own A Levels known as CAPE, which will soon replace the English-based GCE A Levels. The HSC, LSC and GCE dominated the curriculum of secondary schools since the 1880s. The failure rates were very high at both the O and A Levels. It was also a drain on the scarce resources of the region. The minimum of 5 O Level subjects were required to move into the sixth form and five subjects were needed of which 2 must be at A Level for university entry. The Caribbean was influenced by educational and curriculum developments in North America and Europe, especially Britain.Revolutionary curricular changes in m aths and science were being undertaken in the USA as a result of the Russian success in Sputnik I. In the U. K, the Nuffield Foundation invested heavily in a science development project. In 1969-70, the West Indian Science computer programme Innovation consider (WISCIP) began at St. Augustine, UWI, and Trinidad. It was a new approach with emphasis on interrogation and experimentation, understanding and constructive thinking. This was introduced in the DGS and the other high schools of the time. During that same period New Mathematics was introduced in the schools curriculum. only five of the secondary schools in Dominica adopted it. The Convent High School had their first O Level candidates in 1971, and the DGS in 1972. Results in all Caribbean schools were not so good at first because of the unfamiliarity with the new approaches and topics such as inverses, identities, algebra of sets and matrices, decimalisation and metrification, vectors, inequalities and topology. At first mo st of the schools used the School Mathematics Project (SMP) books, but these were replaced by the Joint Schools Project (Caribbean edition) series, as part of the CEDO/UNESCO/UWI Caribbean Mathematics Project.The CXC was established in 1972 to serve the Commonwealth Caribbean. The process took over 10 years. The CXC was to replace the GCE exams. It would develop syllabi, conduct exams and issue certificates. This was a form of asserting cultural and intellectual independence from our colonial past and from Britain. Politically, the Caribbean has eschewed integration. There was the West Indian Federation as colonies of Britain (1958-1962). It ended in failure due to insularity, nationalism and dependency.With independence, the nations can dictate their educational goals and match these to national needs. In Dominica, we have not had a long history of educational reforms established in law. In 1949 an Education Act was passed to regulate and govern the sector. This was changed in 199 7 when the new Education Act was passed. This was part of an attempt to harmonise education code in the Eastern Caribbean. In 1995 the Basic Education Reform Project was launched (BERP). The Project had three main objectives 1. to strengthen the management and planning force of the Ministry, 2.to enhance the quality of education, and 3. to expand and conserve school places. Economically, we live in an interdependent world, a global village. We are partners bargaining from a mark of weakness. Unequal terms of trade, onerous foreign debts, trade deficits and balance of payment problems deplete our resources so that our educational budgets are severely constrained. In widely distributed (1999 2004), Dominica spends closely 17% of its recurrent budget on education, 1-2% on materials and supplies and about 80% on personal emoluments. New broadcast Developments.Primary schools follow a curriculum, which has recently been reviewed by the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU). Schools hav e been provided with curriculum guides for English Language, Mathematics and General Science for Grades K to 6. Curriculum guides for brotherly Studies, Mathematics, Science and English Language were to become available in September 1999 for grades K to 6. A curriculum guide for Social Studies has been ready for Form 1 at the secondary level. Workbooks for Grades k to 3 for English were to have been made available from September 1999.In addition a curriculum guide for Health and Family Life covering primary and secondary age ranges is being monitored and supported in schools. A draft national policy for this was presented to Cabinet in August 1998 but has not besides been officially approved. The CDU has planned to review Music, PE, Art and Craft, and Agriculture in 2001 as well as to start writing and production of support materials for pupils and teachers. The rewrite primary schools curriculum appears to be appropriate at the national level. The main problem appears to be in its delivery.The main need at the primary level for curriculum development is in relation to adapting the teachers guides for multigrade teaching and provision of differentiated activities for all subjects and all classrooms. Dominica does not have a matter Curriculum and therefore, the curriculum de facto is determined by each school and in practice is closely related to the requirements of the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) other external examinations and higher ability students. A balance needs to be struck between the academic and practical skills education in the secondary sector in any future national curriculum.The Ministry of Education has outline the following process to arrive at the promulgation and implementation of the National Curriculum (NC) National Curriculum Committee (NCC) established in school year 1999/2000 NCC reviews existing curriculum locally and regionally Under the NCC, orbit Teams and Subject Areas are established Development of Syllabi, and Curri culum Guides in middle Subject Areas Curriculum Training of Staff/Subject Team Members imagery Provision First Draft National Curriculum in meaning Subject Areas Review of Draft Curriculum Development of Curricula in other subject areas.Establishment of National Norms and Standards for all subjects Piloting of National Curriculum in a cross-section of schools Promulgation of National Curriculum by Minister of Education Use by all schools of the National Curriculum as of September 2003 The Secondary Education Support Project (SESP) had been working with the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) to write and pilot a rewrite curriculum for Forms 1 to 3 in the core subjects of English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies, incorporating activities for average and below average ability pupils.Drafts of curriculum guides for Form 1 have been ideal and were made available to schools in September 1999. All the guides for the four core subjects were made available in 2001. The CDU also h as completed work in Music, Art, Craft, and Agriculture. However, the major curriculum need resides in the reflexion of a curriculum which will meet the needs of all students academic, technical/vocational, aesthetic, spiritual, moral and for citizenship and fulfill the ambitions set out in the 1997 Education Act. This would be especially so when Universal Secondary Education is achieved.